John Hunwick

A map of Egypt easily illustrates why the Sahara Desert is so often called a “sea of sand”. It is enormous and would appear an unwelcome place for a journey, but there are many people who visit the region just to explore the Sahara Desert. Why? Actually the desert is a diverse location full of oases, palm and date groves, hot and cold springs, villages, creatures and remarkable natural wonders.

In order to explore the Sahara Desert safely however, most visitors are encouraged to hire a knowledgeable guide with desert excursion experience. Conditions in the desert are fairly predictable, but someone without the proper equipment and knowledge of the area could easily get lost or into trouble. Luckily there are dozens of companies and travel groups dedicated to serving those who wish to explore the Sahara Desert.

Where should I visit? Many people plan their tour around visits to the five major oases. The farthest and most remote oasis is also one of the most interesting. Near the Libyan border, the Siwa Oasis is an enormous agricultural area which is a major producer of dates and olives. It is also well-known as the location visited by Alexander the Great, where he consulted with the Oracle of Amun in order to confirm his status as the true king of Egypt. Today, Siwa is populated by more than twenty thousand people, mostly Berbers, who live in the many mud-brick houses scattered throughout the area.

Another oasis popular with those who want to explore the Sahara Desert is the Bahariya Oasis. This is a far more modernized oasis than any other, as it is only three hundred kilometers from Cairo and located at the end of a well-made road leading directly out of the city. Visitors today are making the journey in order to watch the exciting and ongoing archeological activity taking place in the oasis. An enormous necropolis was discovered under the sands less than ten years ago, and experts believe over ten thousand mummies are waiting to be found.

Of course anyone who wants to explore the Sahara Desert is not limited to just the oases; there are also many beautiful natural wonders as well. The Farafra Oasis usually hosts visitors who plan to visit the “White Desert” which is a unique area of softer chalk and lime stones that have been worn by the sands and winds into unique shapes and sculptural forms. There is also a distinctive “Black Desert” in this area as well, and most who explore the Sahara Desert make a point of visiting these sites as well as the oases.

Amar Mahallati
http://www.articlesbase.com/destinations-articles/explore-the-sahara-desert-756710.html

The Third most populous city in South Africa is Cape Town. The local government is the City of Cape Town it is governed by 210 city council members who report to the 28 member executive council. The mayor is Helen Zille of the Democratic Alliance and she was chosen by the city council.

Robben Island a penitentiary island, which is 10 kilometres out to sea. Nelson Mandela was held here for many years. On his release he made his first public speech from the balcony of Cape Towns City Hall on 11th February 1990. This speech was the beginning of a new era for the country and four years later the first democratic election were held.

The major problems in the city are HIV, Aids, tuberculosis and drug related crimes. There have been murders targeting Somail shopkeepers. The poorer suburbs often have the highest crime rate.

The city has several well known tourist attractions Table Mountain, Table Mountain National Park, City Bowl and Table Mountain Cableway.

Table Mountain is a prominent land mark overlooking Cape town it is a flat top mountain and forms part of Table Mountain National Park. At the top the cable station offers walking trails and a view point. Rock climbing on the mountain is popular.

Table Mountain National Park has two well know landmarks the Cape of Good Hope and Table Mountain. The park was previously known as the Cape Peninsula National Park and is managed by South African National Parks.

The City Bowl is a natural amphitheatre- shaped area bordered by Table Bay. Included in this area is the harbour Devils Peak, the central business district of Cape Town and the Company Gardens.

The Table Mountain Aerial Cableway is one of Cape Towns popular tourist attraction it is a cableway to the top of Table Mountain. From the top cable station you can see views over Cape Town, Robben Island and Table Bay.

The famous Boulders Beach is best know for its colony of African penguins that settled there in 1982.

Beautiful beaches lay between the mountains of the peninsula. Wind surfers and kite surfers go to the west coast beaches where the wind and surfing conditions are good. False Bay beach water is often warmer then the water located on the Atlantic Coast.

The Victoria and Alfred Waterfront is a working harbour and attracts the highest rate of tourists than any other attraction. It offers entertainment and a variety of shopping. The marina houses the luxury apartments and world class hotels.

Douglas Scott
http://www.articlesbase.com/travel-articles/history-of-cape-town-107310.html

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The closest major city to Johannesburg is South Africas capital Pretoria, 58 kilometres to the north a mere hop in your trusty VW t25. The country’s other major city, Cape Town, is 1 400 kilometres south west of Johannesburg. It is in the north of the country. The city is inland from the coast.

The city is a cosmopolitan melting pot with all the conveniences the foreign visitor could want coupled with the unique charms of Africa. It is where the money is and the action is. It is the most powerful commercial centre on the African continent. It is a city that works, literally, the phones dial, the lights switch on, you can drink the water, there are multi lane freeways, skyscrapers, conference centres and golf courses.

There are no mountains to block growth therefore the city is a shapeless sprawl. Johannesburg is 115 years old. It started life as a gold rush shanty town. It was barely in its teens when it sparked an Anglo Boer war that changed southern African history, over a dispute about who controlled Johannesburg.

In less than 30 years the city had outpaced every rival to become southern Africas major commercial centre. For a foreign visitor, it is cheap. In fact an international survey of 22 leading cities found that Johannesburg was the cheapest to live in less than half the price of London and a quarter the price of Tokyo.

Highlights to be seen include some of the following.

Cradle of Humankind is set of caves west of Johannesburg where many experts believe mankinds hominid ancestors first appeared.

Established in 1912, Alexandra is one of the earliest urban black settlements. It is the site of a multi million presidential development initiative.

Botanic Gardens are one of the finest succulent collections, in addition to wide open green spaces, sparkling dams, roses, herbs, birds and trees galore.

Monte Casino Bird Gardens is a new attraction with some 200 species of birds and over 1500 species of small animals. A feature being is the walk in aviary containing 100 species of birds.

The township whose name became synonymous with anti apartheid resistance. On one street, the Tutus once lived.

The jail that held leading activists from Nelson Mandela to Mahatma Gandhi is reborn as the constitutional court and as a museum graves.

A visit to Johannesburgs new Apartheid Museum is a moving experience, you almost feel you were there among the demonstrators facing down the police.

A bus tour takes visitors to sites of intriguing murders in the city.

Take a trip down an old gold mine which even boasts the worlds deepest pub

Technorati Tags: commercial centre, johannesburg, vw t25

Everywhere, food production is becoming a negative economy, with farmers spending more buying costly inputs for industrial production than the price they receive for their produce. The consequence is rising debts and epidemics of suicides in both rich and poor countries. Cows in the European Union receive on average $2 per day in subsidies. Animals such as chickens are intensively reared rather than allowed to roam free or reared in chicken arks. Over 1 billion people live in the world on less than $1 dollar a day.

Many farmers who traditionally grew pulses and millets and paddy have been lured by seed companies to buy hybrid cotton seeds and other GM crops, which were supposed to make their lives easier and wealthier. Instead they faced bankruptcy and ruin.

Their native seeds have been displaced with new hybrids which cannot be saved and need to be purchased every year at a high cost. Hybrids are also very vulnerable to pest attacks. All pesticides have to be bought from the company that sold them the seeds; there have been reports of blatant profiteering from these companies.

It is experiences such as these which tell me that we are so wrong to be smug about the new global economy. It is time to stop and think about the impact of globalization on the lives of ordinary people. This is vital if we want to achieve sustainability.

We are repeatedly told that without genetic engineering and globalization of agriculture the world will starve, it is constantly promoted as the only alternative available for feeding the hungry.

Farmers in the Third World are encouraged by the IMF and the World Bank to produce cash crops for export. There are usually commodities that can be easily bought and sold on the World Markets. With fluctuating world prices, Fair trade is what can drag farmers and communities out of poverty. In some African countries it is cheaper to buy American sugar and coffee than it is to buy locally produced goods. This is because of over production and subsidies in the West which means that they then dump these goods on Africa destroying local markets.

When patents are granted to companies for seeds and plants, as in the case of basmati, saving and sharing seed is defined as theft of intellectual property. Corporations which have broad patents on crops such as cotton, soya bean and mustard are suing farmers for seed-saving and hiring detective agencies to find out if farmers have saved seed or shared it with neighbours.

As Gandhi reminded us, ‘The Earth has enough for everyone’s needs, but not for some people’s greed.’€

This article has been adapted with the kind permission from Food Patents ‘€”Stealing Indigenous Knowledge’,Anup Shah,2006

Davinos Greeno
http://www.articlesbase.com/politics-articles/globalization-and-poverty-84540.html

Technorati Tags: chickenarks, globalization, GM crops

Export sector development has become one of the most discussed issues in Sierra Leone’s development politics. The previous administration of Tejan Kabbah introduced some credible initiatives to promote Sierra Leone‒s export trade. The investment code enacted in 2004 could actually increase visibility for Sierra Leone’’ progress in creating an environment conducive to investment and poverty reduction if properly utilized. Empowering SLEDIC (Sierra Leone Export Development and Investment Corporation) as a âone-stop-shop†that simplifies business registration and minimizes transactions cost was also of strategic importance. But years of mismanagement of opportunities stifled the successful implementation of these initiatives. Today, however, there is reason to believe that commitment in implementing export sector development initiatives with the APC-led administration of Ernest Koroma can change.

Vast stretches of arable lands and abundance in mineral resources offer a natural comparative advantage for agricultural and technological development in Sierra Leone. The right commitment, in other words, can greatly square President Koroma’s goal of making government work in Sierra Leone.

The prognosis in Sierra Leone’s politics of self destruction has been hopelessly grim for decades. The country has consistently suffered decades of severe economic hardship and struggling with chronic problems of corruption and a broken management system at national proportions. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has not looked good for decades and the country has consistently ranked very low in the United Nations’ assessments of countries’ human development indices. It might make sense for the new APC administration to be serious about government, commit to a selfless agenda of national development, and expect the best to come out of Sierra Leone. But the commitment to change the pervading prognosis of systematic mismanagement of resources can even be now much more promising than it has been since the APC is being given a second chance, and President Koroma living up to the high standard of expectations Sierra Leoneans have for his government. Apparently, Sierra Leoneans have lost every patience and all they want to see is a government that can build on a pattern of positive change for sustained development.

The last one year Koroma has been in power has brought major changes in the underlying strategic calculus facing Sierra Leone’s governance system – an ACC made stronger, emphasis on performance and fiscal responsibility in public office, and creating new, more positive development dynamics and incentives. And these developments can be made sustainable with the vast potential in agricultural and technological development. Insisting on excellence in public service and emphasis in export sector development initiatives developed within the framework of the trade agreements and the WTO trade rules that apply to international trade will work under the new conditions in Sierra Leone. President Koroma has shown praiseworthy commitment to “unite both the private and public sectors for a well-ordered society and economic progress”, a position made clear at a private sector forum at the British Council which State House convened in conjunction with the Sierra Leone Business Forum”. However, the laudable efforts of the president require a sustained commitment that supports a liberalized trading system to promote trade and diversify exports.

Both to build on the export sector development initiatives started by Kabbah and to introduce new dynamics, any commitment to good governance, now that the mechanisms of democracy are in place, should be reassuring and taken seriously.

Enabling Environment

Most countries have a mental image of Sierra Leone that is defined by the chaos of a society overrun by corrupt politicians and business people. But Sierra Leone can be made a very different place than for what it was known. Overall development can make paramount the pursuit of accountable, transparent and corruption-free policies to ensure a carefully sequenced opening up of investment opportunities in the country. The effort towards establishing mutual recognition agreements for agricultural exports with other market countries can greatly impact Sierra Leone’s export development sector. The Ministries of Agriculture, Marine Resources, Mineral Resources, Foreign Affairs, Trade and SLEDIC have a role to play. They have to create the environment to attract major investments to develop Sierra Leone’s cottage industries and raise the quality of products made in Sierra Leone. There are certain things the government can also do such as:

· identify and enhance divestiture of state-owned enterprises;

· augment the liberalization of trade and exchange rate, deregulation of prices, strengthening of fiscal management and domestic resource mobilization, and elimination of subsidies (especially on petroleum products and the staple food, rice);

· streamline and facilitate the process for exports by eliminating duplication and ensuring coordination between Government provided services to the export industry; and

· sustained support to the agricultural sector.

In the same token, small and medium-sized enterprises are key drivers of the economy. Helping them to develop is a reaffirmation of the fundamentals of trade sector development which include the establishment of export processing zone, provision of micro finance, and reactivation of skills training centers.

These are remarkable trends that are in sync with trends in facilitating the development of value added products for accessing markets in the United States and Europe through the United States African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and the European Union’s Everything But Arms (EBA) Initiatives; and formulating transparent investment guidelines.

Sustainable rural development programs that support supply side resources available for export which are in the rural sector and the development of these resources shall also see benefits occur in the development of viable income for the rural sector. The government’s role in facilitating development of the infrastructure for clean water, healthcare, roads, electricity and telecommunications is critical. The European Union, the World Bank and other international development agencies are partners in development for Sierra Leone. The government has to show a sustained responsibility and commitment to cooperate with these world institutions.

Export sector development, and especially its emphasis on enabling investment opportunities for the development of small and medium enterprises and raising standards in product development, will enable the growth of the Sierra Leone economy. Agriculture, combined with financial resources generated from the country’s vast mineral resource base and a strong export sector development knowledge of what standards are required to compete in the global market, will essentially drive Sierra Leone’s engine of growth.

Essentially also, access to information is fundamental to the development of a viable private sector. The private sector needs to know what is out there and how to capitalize on the market access agreements available. To reaffirm its responsibility and commitment, the Government needs to leverage technology to make available such information. A combination of business training and development programs and the one-stop approach to ensuring coherence in private sector development shall result in the sustainability of available resources.

Further, agriculture and fisheries are areas if enabled can quickly develop an export led economy. The APC-led administration seems to recognize this. A successful example of this is the boost in fishery exports since last year when the APC was voted in. The Ministry of Marine Resources (one of the country’s highest employers with over 100,000 employees for those in marketing and processing marine resources and 30,000 employees for local fishing communities) generated Le1,196.42 billion from October to November 2007; Le1.2 billion in December 2007 and Le1.7 billion in January, 2008. In spite of the persistent pirating by fishing vessels traversing Sierra Leone’s territorial waters, the Ministry has managed to conserve the country’s marine resources and to avoid depletion that has seen stable profitable growth in the sector.

A national export strategy (NES) can be fully developed as part of the Ministry of Finance budget information. Government can support the aggressive expansion of the availability of financing for export development and to assist in the development of standards and regulations of the services sector to provide a base for the export of this sector of the economy. Consistent with what the APC-led administration of Ernest Koroma is trying to do, government should do more to strengthen public-private partnerships and ensure it is never taken for granted.

The private sector can feel appreciated when government can ensure the participation of the private sector in high-level diplomatic missions, assisting companies in accessing trade shows and markets internationally. The ability to access distribution channels for exporters cannot be over-stated as high level missions can open doors that the individual companies cannot open. The opportunity to gain exposure in overseas markets is an underutilized initiative and needs to be strengthened.

Moreover, developing a database/register of customary land based on clear standards of ownership of land is also fundamental to Sierra Leone’s export economy. The net result of all this would be a profound change in the underlying strategic calculus in the APC administration’s commitment to drive economic development in Sierra Leone – building on the essence of an export-led economy which creates jobs and promotes a stable and progressively developing Sierra Leone.  It is worth noting that a combination of initiatives to drive an export-led economy is chief driver of sustained economic development. Much of the country’s GDP remains underutilized but shows great potential. And whereas an export-led economy argument implies that GDP increases are realized, a national export strategy that encompasses all the initiatives of the previous administration and evolving new ideas can be fully integrated in a well articulated national export strategy.

Supply Side Potential

If the APC administration and its leaders are to keep Sierra Leone moving toward economic stability, they must still overcome a range of supply-specific challenges that need to be developed to meet the standards of the global market. These challenges promise to be generally less daunting with the right leadership resolve to drive change, and where resolve is lacking they could still make worse the severe economic woes of the country. Sierra Leone may still rank last in the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI), but as, Dmitry Titov, Assistant Secretary-General of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) puts it, Sierra Leone’s prospects of moving forward and boosting its socio-economic situation is ‘hopeful” (Scoop World Independent News). Achieving this, however, will be the responsibility of the country’s leadership to guide an export-sector-led economy and to develop such economy to meet the standards of the global market. There are a good number of supply-specific areas that can be developed, but it is worth highlighting some of the most important.

First, there is the challenge of developing the country cloth and garments market. This is possible with a garment training center or other body established with industry standards either established through SLEDIC or the Ministry of Trade. The possibilities of a garment training center should be a critical element in growing the garment industry in Sierra Leone. With major production enhanced, the need can be simultaneously created to support fashion or trade shows and a greater interaction between the hospitality industry and the garment industry.

Sierra Leone obtained the AGOA Visa for textiles and garments in April 2004 and that should be an excellent tool for exploring export opportunities available as well as through other initiatives such as those afforded through the European Union-African Caribbean and Pacific (EU-ACP) cooperation, World Trade Organization and the economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). A Standards Bureau can help in implementing standards and quality control measures to make Sierra Leonean products competitive.

The Agriculture and Agro-Processing industry is also with great possibilities if it can overcome sanitary, bio-security and technical barriers to trade. Proper agro-processing adds value in the local environment and achieves a market ready product for immediate distribution or sale reducing offshore costs and maximizing returns. Standardized agro-processing facility can assist rural communities by providing a local base for their exports. SLEDIC should provide guidelines on sustainable processing for better market access and should come up with a quality mark for all Sierra Leonean agro-processed products. Identifying tropical products which have combined high returns to the farmer by either having high yield or high returns has the potential of giving farmers the options to look at more innovative plants that can form a basis for value adding.

Catalyst large farms can provide consistent volumes that can then be used to coalesce the many small community landholdings into a reliable consistent sustainable supplier of produce. More active pest eradication and assessment programs are necessary to build faith in agricultural supplies from Sierra Leone. Also looking at organic farming as a future for Sierra Leone and as a niche market with high value with government providing certification will have an added virtue of sparking an agricultural boom and thereby helping reduce unemployment. And with standards provided for the output of agricultural products, farmers and exporters would clearly understand the export needs of the different markets.

Effectively managed agricultural support measures such as the provision of machinery and improved seedlings to farmers and farming communities is expected to help not only in achieving Government’s goal of food security but also encouraging crop diversification for both domestic consumption and export. With support from partners notably UNDP, FAO and the ADB considerable improvement has been made in the agricultural sector with the establishment of more than 130,000 Agricultural Business Units (ABUs) in the rural areas that account for the anticipated increase in agricultural production. These are existing facilities that can be further developed and adequately utilized.

Value adding through drying or smoking as well as packaging should be a priority for the fishing industry as another export sector development possibility. Facilities to handle fishing vessels need upgrade and aquaculture practices developed to meet global standards in fisheries development.

Credible policy reforms in the mining sector are important for sustaining improved minerals production. Modern mining operations require substantial investments. The ability of existing indigenous operators to modernize their operations depends on the availability of foreign investments to acquire the necessary hardware and expertise. What could be done is to promote the effective organization of cooperative joint ventures with owners of diamondiferous lands whose lands could be used as collaterals to secure the foreign direct investments and/or lines of credit needed to acquire modern mining equipment like bulldozers, excavators, front-end loaders, draglines, etc.

Further, setting up of diamond cutting and polishing stations equipped with workbenches designed for use with diamond cutting fly wheels along with several grinding applications is necessary. Diamond cutting is the art, skill and, increasingly, science of changing a diamond from a rough stone into a faceted gem. Diamond cutting requires specialized knowledge, tools, equipment, and techniques because of its extreme hardness. The history of diamond cutting and polishing has its origins in India, where it was discovered a long time ago by Indian lapidaries that a diamond could be made to glisten simply by grinding another diamond against it. The setting up of these diamond cutting and polishing stations in Sierra Leone will aid the local diamond trade. The goal is to import diamond polishing skills and technology to Sierra Leone to enable the country to compete with other countries like the United States and India in the diamond processing sector. The Government of Sierra Leone should applaud this initiative since it is emphasizing the need for indigenous Sierra Leoneans to share in the downstream benefit of diamonds.

A final export sector development strategy worth noting is the services sector. At present the country does not have a well supported and regulated consultancy sector which could form the bulk of exports in the services sector. The only sector recognized is the Tourism sector which although important is not the only services sector with opportunities. Sierra Leone shows great potential in a number of areas and this expertise is yet to be developed using Government assistance and there should be an export focus on these areas.

Efficient Production Practices

Firms in Sierra Leone are often unaware of their own inefficiency. Such firms attribute too much of their inability to export to external factors and too little to their lack of efficient production. Import restrictions creating protected domestic markets have given entrepreneurs a false sense of competence. These entrepreneurs are only slowly aware of the critical roles that quality control, price and on-time delivery plays in international markets. Once their eyes are opened to the importance of these factors, access to buyers and technical support focused on production constraints can provide them with the means for lowering costs and raising quality.

Filling in specific service gaps can speed up the private sector response to policy improvements, and can accelerate export growth. With more knowledge and contacts, firms will achieve a higher level of export sales and more firms will enter the market. In short, intervention in the market for export services can be justified based on “infant industry” and “learning by doing” considerations.

Finally, the institutional structure of the export support service entity must fit the type of service provided. Membership-based trade groups, such as exporters associations, have been effective in providing basic information on buyers and foreign markets. But private non-profits or freestanding projects have been more effective in providing customized, firm-specific services. The point is that they often have the autonomy, expertise and flexibility to link firms with appropriate commercial sources of services, such as buyers, suppliers, and investors.

Of course, much could be done by utter commitment of the leaders who should understand and accept the importance of private sector input in the formulation of government trade and general economic policies. The potential of the global marketplace as a source of corporate expansion and economic growth is great. The policy makers have the sublime role to support private companies in seizing the opportunities that an integrated world economy offers - access to foreign capital, new market opportunities and increased trade. A Trade Policy Review with the support of the World Trade Organization (WTO), substantial deregulation to boost investment and private sector development, will yield a stability that endures as Sierra Leone economic growth is defined.

Credit: Cocorioko Sierra Leone Portal

Kenday S. Kamara
http://www.articlesbase.com/business-opportunities-articles/sierra-leone-building-on-an-exportsectorled-economy-589806.html

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Environmental problems are key challenges of the XXIst century. The terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments have declined in virtually all aspects. New developments in industry and manufacturing were root causes of environmental degradation over the past three decades. The rapid growth of population, urbanization and globalization are the driving force of the environmental problems. However, the challenge is extremely high not only for the well-developed regions, but in poor parts of the world as well. The challenges have to be dealt with at the micro environemt of the chicken ark keeping village, right through to the macro envronment of gross resource exploitation

Such environmental problems as land degradation, deforestation, declining of marine resources and water scarcity of deteriorating of water and air quality are on the priority list in Africa. Despite, Africa possesses wealthy natural resources many Africans live in poverty unable to benefit from the African wealth because of uneven distribution across the continent and partly because of African complicated history over the past 50 years after the decolonization.

Africa has a vast majority of poor states and regions, and poverty is a major reason and consequence of the environmental degradation. The present paper ascertains the small research on the environmental issues in Africa. In the work I will analyze one Africa region, demonstrating its problems in the environment. At the end I will point out the root cause of these problems and suggest possible ways out, if there are any.

In general a vast majority of countries in Africa depend more on their natural resource base for economic and social needs than any other region in the world. Thus, two-thirds of sub-Saharan Africa’s people live in rural areas and rely on agriculture and other natural resources for income. Sub-Saharan states of Africa are right the countries, where environmental problems are first on the agenda. The environmental problems have already waited a long time for their turn. Among them there are air and water pollution, inefficient use of natural resources, oil spills and so on. Environmental problems of sub-Saharan Africa also include air and water pollution, deforestation, loss of soil and soil fertility, and a dramatic decline in biodiversity throughout the region. nest paragraphs will face the problems in more details.
It is quite understandable that the environmental problems in Sub-Sahar region are crucial and severe. The most compelling problem in Sub-Saharan Africa is that it has one of the world’s fastest growing populations (approximately 2.2% a year). With the fast grow of the population the environmental challenge increase. By the year 2025 according to some estimation, the population of the African people will be over a billion. This means that the environmental challenges will definitely double or triple. Some literature indicate that Sub-African countries managed to perform more effective economic policies, which influenced the development in the region in general, but GDP growth has stagnated recently and it is obvious that with the stagnation of the economics will cause decrease in the solution of the ecological challenges.
Poverty also is the main factor that influences the development of the environmental issues. And it also exists in Sub-Sahar region, despite the region is not that poor in the comparison with other regions in Africa and in spite of the wealth natural resources. In general the problems in sub-Sahar and in Africa in common was addressed during the World Summit on sustainable Development (WSSD) which was help in South Africa in August 2002. Basically, the material of the summit points out main environmental problems and challenges. The key issues which dominate African environmental problems were addressed during the summit. They include:

1. Water pollution and sanitation. First of all water pollution is caused by oil transmission n ship ports, water resources poor management, lack of financial resources required for sustainable development and efficient utilization of resources, absence of effective regional and basin development plans and shared management, and under-estimation of the groundwater potential to supplement irrigation and drinking water supplies. Thus, Africa’s freshwater problems are acute and worsening. Freshwater shortage is the two greatest limits to development in Africa;

2. Energy. Energy consumption in sub-Saharan Africa varies dramatically and dominates fuel consumption. According to reports the use of wood for fuel is predominant in both rural and urban locations and accounts for approximately 70% of total energy use. This cause another problem deforestation. In Sub-Sahara region Nigeria consistently leads to commercial energy consumption. Thus, according to data in 2001, Nigeria consumed 0.92 quadrillion Btu (quads), 32% of all energy consumed in the region. Although domestic demand for energy consumption in sub-Saharan Africa is growing rapidly, consumption levels remain well below world averages. I would like to mention but few words about deforestation. Africa is home to one of the world’s largest rain forests.

It is obvious that rain forests are lungs of the Earth and their reduction cause air pollution. They protect and stabilize soils, recycle nutrients and regulate the quality and flow of water. Deforestation is one of the most pressing environmental problems not only in Africa but in other parts of the world and has negative implications for the local and global environment. Forests cover about 22 per cent of the region, but they are disappearing faster than anywhere else in the developing world. During the 1980s Africa lost 10.5 per cent of its forests. Thus, African forests are shrinking as a result of deforestation;

3. Deforestation causes another problem - threats to biodiversity. The richness of African biodiversity requires greater protection and a sustainable use that will ensure the income of those who depend on it. There is a need to maximize biodiversity landscape protection, to give priority to biodiversity areas close to areas of high population density, and to give balanced attention to such regions as the arid and semi-arid areas.

4. Oil pollution. Oil pollution is one of the issues that must be specified being a controversial subject of heated discussion among the representatives of the academia. In a number of countries such as Nigeria and Angola, fore example, oil is the principle source of benefits. However it is pretty clear that new technologies used in oil exploration are extremely harmful for the environment. Environmental problems are common and rise heated debates. On the one hand, it expands relations among states, diversify trade relations, bring benefits. But, on the other hand, the benefits from oil are not fairly distributed among the population. The revenues from oil mainly belong to some local government communities or certain groups of interest. But the commons of Sub-Sahara have to face the oil-related problems.

Increased food insecurity resulting from rapid population growth, degradation of agriculture and arable lands, and mismanagement of available water resources combined with poor economic policies to support food production. Land degradation is also a serious environmental problem. However, Africa owns vast areas of unexploited arable land which could be exploited in the future through the integrated management of land, water and human resources.

After the Summit was held sub-Saharan Africa many problems were clear. To summarize, the address of environmental issues first of all lie in environmental awareness. But what was done to address the challenges? First, many problems in this region received more attention than in past and The United States pledged $4.5 billion over the next three years to combat HIV/AIDS and improve access to safe water. Many projects were launched by international organizations and NGOs in order to promote forest conservation. European Union was also involved in the process of combating the issues and helped in brining water and sanitation services. These events were helpful but did not solve the whole spectrum of problems.

it is clear that external participation is not obviously enough in addressing complicated problems. It is understandable that local governments have to work hard on solutions. The environmental problems that were addressed in the paper are not unique and can be found in many regions of our planet, especially where poverty flourish. But not only poverty is the decisive factor in pollution. Russia, for example is the state which suffers from the water and air pollution caused by nuclear developments. The problem was not resolved completely as Russia does not want to cease the development of nuclear infrastructure, but it was addressed at least party.

It is important to notice that a vast majority of states face environmental issues and problems, they may vary from region to region, but in general almost every region on this planet where urbanization or globalization takes place is a subject to environmental problems. Moreover, environmental issues may vary from one region to another, but still may have an impact upon different sphere of economics or social spheres. To cap it all the environmental issues need regular monitoring, assessments and public reports of the state.

Water pollution is one of the examples of growing global awareness and efforts made to combat the issue. It must be noticed that the environmental impacts associated with oil exploration and development was the controversy surrounding the World Bank’s approval of the Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Project in June 2000.

The summit, which was held on Sub-Sahara issues drew the attention of a number of developing states and the world hegemony the United States as well as regional or international organizations. The awareness of the problems made these entities to collaborate on the issue.

The increase of problems awareness influenced also the attention of local governments. But it is clear that some states of Africa because of their poverty undoubtedly need the interference of stronger states in the resolution of the problems. It was stated at the beginning of the paper that environmental problems are rather new and some of them are not more that 10 or 20 year old.

To some extent they were caused by globalization and urbanization. Thus, is they are caused by global inadequate levels of population grow and demands for more water and oil, then the burden of their resolution is also global. It is true that the increase in environmental awareness made people more persistent in the demands toward local governments. But the forceful demands are not enough, as significant regions in Africa are poor and suffer from poverty issue. This means that it is important to increase environmental awareness within the general public, but because of poverty it can not lead sometimes to strong and necessary changes.

Hence, the key challenge for Sub-African region is to reduce poverty. New approaches must be found and it is important to organize investment in climate studies. Establishing a positive investment climate in Africa is increasingly important to face the environmental problems in the regions, which are only involved in oil production.

Andrew Sandon
http://www.articlesbase.com/environment-articles/environmental-problems-in-africa-67595.html

Technorati Tags: climate changes, deforestation, natural resources

Water raises national fervor in Canada, and Canadians are reluctant to share their birthright with a United States that has mismanaged? Indeed, the prospect of losing control of its water under free-trade or other agreements is something Canadians seem to worry about constantly.

Water is having a significant impact on many people’s lives around the world. From droughts to quake lakes, floods to monsoons, people and animals are dealing with water in many ways.

Water reserves have become scarce in many African countries, such as Chad, due mainly to global climate change. As lakes shrink, the local population loses its means of survival, sowing the seeds for violence between communities.  This is a matter of survival for alrge numbers of people in sub-saharan africa where thei lack of water has led to the inability of populations to systain even the most basic agrculture.  Cattle, which need large quantities of water, often die.  Goats strip the remaining sparse vegetation and even keeping chickens is becoming dfficult across large areas. 

Water consumption is doubling every 20 years and yet at the same time, water sources are rapidly being polluted, depleted, diverted and exploited by corporate interests ranging from industrial agriculture and manufacturing to electricity production and mining.

The World Bank predicts that by 2025, two-thirds of the world’s population will suffer from lack of clean and safe drinking water.

Water molecules are naturally attracted and stick to each other because of this polarity, forming a hydrogen bond . This hydrogen bond is the reason behind many of water’s special properties, such as the fact that it’s denser in its liquid state than in its solid state (ice floats on water).

Water use doesn’t just include what you drink from the bottle or what you use to wash your clothes. It also includes the water used to grow the things we eat and wear. Water, of course, is essential to human health. Drinking enough water to replace whatever is lost through bodily functions is important. Water can be liquid, solid, or gas. It can evaporate into vapor or freeze into ice.

Water makes up more than half of your body weight and a person can’t survive for more than a few days without it. Your body has lots of important jobs and it needs water to do many of them. Water quality can be compromised by the presence of infectious agents, toxic chemicals, and radiological hazards. Water stress results from an imbalance between water use and water resources. The water stress indicator in this map measures the proportion of water withdrawal with respect to total renewable resources.

Clean water is vital to life and its supply is limited, so it must be utilized carefully to be sure it is protected for future generations. API and our members work to ensure the continued availability of high quality water. Clean water can be easy to take for granted. Flowing in and out of our homes and businesses through underground pipes, clean water for sanitation keeps our communities livable, our lifestyles possible, and our industries viable.

Technorati Tags: sub saharan africa, water shortages

Taking an African safari is an exciting holiday choice for many people however, given the nature of such an adventure, there is a required amount of due diligence to perform before you actually take off for the wilds of Africa.

I want to briefly highlight some areas of interest in this article which you will be able to expand on further by conducting more research

Botswana Safari

For sheer contrast in landscapes Botswana is the ideal candidate. From the dry arid lands of the Kalahari desert to the rich, life blooming Okavango Delta, Botswana offers many options. Because of it’s tremendous contrast, Botswana is a perfect choice for first time safari seekers. It has a deep history and and the choice of safaris range from mobile to fly ins. It’s also a welcoming country, with interesting domestic animals - the ubiquitous chickens (unusually they often use chicken arks because of snakes) and goats of course, but some more interesting animals in addition.

Kruger National Park

Undoubtedly Africa’s best known safari destination, Kruger has been officially in existence since 1926. Set in South Africa and formerly known as Sabie Park before being expanded and re-named more than 80 years ago, Kruger has been a safe haven for many animal species due to the threat of over hunting. Since being opened to visitors, Kruger has drawn visitors to it like a magnet however, there are certain codes of etiquette you’ll need to observe.

Kenya Safari

Kenya has been described as the “grand daddy” of African safari destinations because it is the birthplace of the traditional safari. Like Botswana, it offers plenty of diversity in both landscape and fauna. The Masai people are almost legendary around the world and the safari options are numerous. One of the favoured safari tours is the Gorilla tour. However, think of an animal in Africa and it’s likely to be in Kenya… elephants, lions, giraffes, zebras, cheetahs… all you’ll need is good working camera.

Tanzania Safari

Tanzania would just about be this author’s favorite safari destination. Tanzania is East Africa’s largest country and as a history student, it conjures up images of a rich, exciting and sometimes violent past. What it has to offer both in landscape and fauna is quite staggering… Kilimanjaro, the Serengeti, wildlife and some amazing national parks. In fact, if it’s wildlife you’re interested in then Tanzania is pretty hard to beat.

These are just four areas on the African Safari trail well worth considering however, throw “into the mix” safari destinations in Namibia, Zambia, Mozambique and Zimbabwe plus consider short term safari options to major landmarks and areas and you begin to appreciate that vastness that is Africa.

Are there any dangers? Well sure, but tour operators are extremely over zealous about the safety of tourists that this almost doesn’t become a concern. Preparation for an African Safari is of the utmost importance and not only will you need to do homework on the intended area of visit but there is a little matter of “housekeeping” to perform as well. What to take? Clothing;light or heavy, personal care items, passports, money, sunblock treatments: your tour operator will be able to give you a shortlist to consider before leaving the country. The latter just about becomes the most important part of the trip because if you get it right, then your African safari experience becomes a whole lot more attractive.

Dean Caporella
http://www.articlesbase.com/travel-articles/favorite-african-safari-destinations-and-safari-preparation-59878.html

Technorati Tags: safari preparation, safaris impact on infrastructure and economics, sub saharan tourim

Ancient history. The earliest fossil carnivores that can be linked with some certainty to canids are the Eocene Miacids some 55 to 38 million years ago. From the miacids evolved the cat-like (Feloidea) and dog-like (Canoidea) carnivores.

Most important to the ancestry of the dog was the canoed line, leading from the coyote-sized Mesocyon of the Oligocene (38 to 24 million years ago) to the fox-like Leptocyon and the wolf-like Tomarctus that roamed North America some 10 million years ago. From the time of Tomarctus, dog-like carnivores have expanded throughout the world.

About Domestication. Human hunter-gatherers and wolves experienced several overlaps as both are social species, they shared habitat and hunted the same prey. There are four theories to explain possible routes for domestication of the dog:

1. Orphaned wolf-cubs: Studies have shown that some wolf pups taken at an early age and reared by humans are easily tamed and socialized.[2] Once these early adoptees started breeding amongst themselves, a new generation of tame “wolf-like” domestic animals would result which would over generations of time, become more dog-like.

2. The Promise of Food: Early wolves would, as scavengers, be attracted to the bones and refuse dumps of human campsites. Once there, they would recognise specific humans as “ours” and in protecting their range from strangers, would be useful to prevent surprise attack.

These early adoptees became tame wolves, dependent on humans for their source of food. The New Guinea “singing dogs” have such a function today, as do the pariah dogs of India. Dr. Raymond Coppinger of Hampshire College, Massachusetts, argues that such wolves over time would become less fearful of humans than most wild wolves, and this trait may have been heritable, making these wolves more likely to be domesticated.

Hypothetically, wolves separated into two populations - the village-oriented scavengers and the packs of hunters. The next steps have not been defined, but selective pressure must have been present to sustain the divergence of these populations.

3. As a beast of burden: North American Indians used dog-sized travois before adapting the horse for this purpose, and huskies are famous for pulling sleds for Inuit communities. It is very probable that the dog was the original beast of burden before the domestication of the horse or ox.

4. Dogs as a source of food and fur: Whilst Westerners have difficulty thinking of dogs (or wolves) as a source of meat, wolf fur is a highly prized commodity.

Archaeology has placed the earliest known domestication at potentially 10,000 BC-12,000 BC and with certainty at 7,000 BC . Domestication of the wolf over time has produced a number of physical changes typical of all domesticated mammals.

These include: a reduction in overall size; changes in coat colouration and markings; a shorter jaw initially with crowding of the teeth and, later, with the shrinking in size of the teeth; a reduction in brain size and intelligence and thus in cranial capacity (particularly those areas relating to alertness and sensory processing, necessary in the wild); and the development of a pronounced stop, or vertical drop in front of the forehead (brachycephaly).

Behaviourally, the wagging of tails and barking are behaviours only found in wolf puppies, retained via neoteny throughout the dog’s life. Certain wolf-like behaviours, such as the regurgitation of partially digested food for the young, have also disappeared.

As an experiment in the domestication of wolves, the “farm fox” experiment of Russian scientist Dmitry Belyaev [5] attempted to reenact of how domestication may have occurred. Researchers working with selectively breeding wild silver foxes over thirty-five generations and forty years for the sole trait of friendliness to humans, created more dog-like animals.

The “domestic elite” foxes are much more friendly to humans and actually seek human attention, but they also show new physical traits that parallel the selection for tameness, even though the physical traits were not originally selected for. They include spotted or black-and-white coats, floppy ears, tails that curl over their backs, and earlier sexual maturity. It was reported “On average, the domestic foxes respond to sounds two days earlier and open their eyes one day earlier than their non-domesticated cousins.

More striking is that their socialization period has greatly increased. Instead of developing a fear response at 6 weeks of age, the domesticated foxes don’t show it until 9 weeks of age or later. The whimpering and tail wagging is a holdover from puppy hood, as are the foreshortened face and muzzle. Even the new coat colours can be explained by the altered timing of development. One researcher found that the migration of certain melanocytes (which determine colour) was delayed, resulting in a black and white ’star’ pattern.”

DNA Evidence. Prior to the use of DNA researchers were divided into two schools of thought: 1. most supposed that these early dogs were descendants of tamed wolves, which interbred and evolved into a domesticated species. 2. other scientists, whilst believing wolves were the chief contributor, suspected that jackals or coyotes contributed to the dog’s ancestry.

Carles Vila of UCLA,[1], who has conducted the most extensive study to date, has shown that DNA evidence has ruled out any ancestor canine species except the wolf. Vila’s team analyzed 162 different examples of wolf DNA from 27 populations in Europe, Asia, and North America. These results were compared with DNA from 140 individual dogs from 67 breeds gathered from around the world. Using blood or hair samples, DNA was extracted and genetic distance for mitochondrial DNA was estimated between individuals.

Based on this DNA evidence, most of the domesticated dogs were found to be members of one of four groups. The largest and most diverse group contains sequences found in the most ancient dog breeds, including the dingo of Australia, the New Guinea singing dog, and many modern breeds, like the collie and retriever.

Other groups such as the German shepherd showed a closer relation to wolf sequences than to those of the main dog group, suggesting that such breeds had been produced by crossing dogs with wild wolves. It is also possible that this is evidence that dogs may have been domesticated from wolves on different occasions and at different places.

Vila is still uncertain whether domestication happened once - after which domesticated dogs bred with wolves from time to time - or whether it happened more than once.

The most puzzling fact of the DNA evidence is that the variability in molecular distance between dogs and wolves seems greater than the 10-20,000 years assigned to domestication.

Based upon the molecular clock studies conducted, it would seem that dogs separated from the wolf lineage approximately 100,000 years ago. Although clear evidence for fossil dogs becomes obscure beyond about 14,000 years ago, there are fossils of wolf bones in association with early humans from well beyond 100,000 years ago.

Tamed wolves might have taken up with hunter-gatherers without changing in ways that the fossil record could clearly capture. These dogs-in-process would possibly have dallied with wolves as packs of humans and canines traveled out of Africa and around the world.

Since evidence of dogs is not found elsewhere before 14,000 years ago, it may be that the “Sahara pump” associated with the Glacial Maximum was responsible for the spread of the dogs out of Africa. Such a thesis is compatible with the spread of languages associated with the Nostratic hypothesis.

Keith Londrie
http://www.articlesbase.com/pets-articles/origin-of-the-domestic-dog-130582.html

Improving transport infrastucture in West Africa is a key issue. As those of us who travel in this area know “prevailing rural transport vehicles” (such as VW Campers, elderly Mercedes Buses, miscellaneous trucks) struggle due not only due the age of the vehicles, but also the stress of being driven overloaded and on poor quality roads.

THe following exerpte from a World bank road managment project highlights key issues in measuring requirements and planning improvements - and deals with issues surronding this vicious circle.

“Road infrastructure is a prerequisite (but no guarantee) for economic growth and poverty alleviation. To maximize the positive impact of transport infrastructure in general and poverty alleviation initiatives in particular, the “right” balance between interventions in the national and the rural road network is equally important – i.e. between national connectedness and basic access.

BAA adopts a holistic view in understanding mobility and accessibility needs of rural
communities. It provides a means of identifying, ranking and costing projects for addressing these needs,
for inclusion in the decision-making process. In doing this, BAA enables road authorities to adopt an
inclusive approach in managing road infrastructure, considering both national and rural roads.
BAA Basic Access Approach

The RTI network is defined as “the lowest level of the physical transport chain that connects the rural
population, and therefore the majority of the poor, to their farms, local markets, and social services, such as
schools and health centers, potentially increasing their real income and improving their quality of life” (Lebo
and Schelling, p. 9). Key features of RTI are as follows:

• Ownership: RTI is normally owned by local governments and communities.

• Managing and financing: Many different arrangements may exist for managing and financing RTI.

• Physical features: RTI connects villages to the higher classified road network. These links are normally relatively short (less than 20 kilometers) and sometimes at least partly engineered.

• Traffic characteristics: Transport activities generally are at a much lower level than on main road networks. They are a combination of pedestrians, intermediate means of transport (IMT)such as bicycles and animal-drawn carts, and motorized transport

Minimum criteria for basic access RTI are as follows:

• Passability or reliability

• Adequate access to higher level networks

• Adequate access to local social and economic facilities

• Adequate access to domestic activities

• Trafficable by prevailing rural transport vehicle