John Hunwick

Ancient history. The earliest fossil carnivores that can be linked with some certainty to canids are the Eocene Miacids some 55 to 38 million years ago. From the miacids evolved the cat-like (Feloidea) and dog-like (Canoidea) carnivores.

Most important to the ancestry of the dog was the canoed line, leading from the coyote-sized Mesocyon of the Oligocene (38 to 24 million years ago) to the fox-like Leptocyon and the wolf-like Tomarctus that roamed North America some 10 million years ago. From the time of Tomarctus, dog-like carnivores have expanded throughout the world.

About Domestication. Human hunter-gatherers and wolves experienced several overlaps as both are social species, they shared habitat and hunted the same prey. There are four theories to explain possible routes for domestication of the dog:

1. Orphaned wolf-cubs: Studies have shown that some wolf pups taken at an early age and reared by humans are easily tamed and socialized.[2] Once these early adoptees started breeding amongst themselves, a new generation of tame “wolf-like” domestic animals would result which would over generations of time, become more dog-like.

2. The Promise of Food: Early wolves would, as scavengers, be attracted to the bones and refuse dumps of human campsites. Once there, they would recognise specific humans as “ours” and in protecting their range from strangers, would be useful to prevent surprise attack.

These early adoptees became tame wolves, dependent on humans for their source of food. The New Guinea “singing dogs” have such a function today, as do the pariah dogs of India. Dr. Raymond Coppinger of Hampshire College, Massachusetts, argues that such wolves over time would become less fearful of humans than most wild wolves, and this trait may have been heritable, making these wolves more likely to be domesticated.

Hypothetically, wolves separated into two populations - the village-oriented scavengers and the packs of hunters. The next steps have not been defined, but selective pressure must have been present to sustain the divergence of these populations.

3. As a beast of burden: North American Indians used dog-sized travois before adapting the horse for this purpose, and huskies are famous for pulling sleds for Inuit communities. It is very probable that the dog was the original beast of burden before the domestication of the horse or ox.

4. Dogs as a source of food and fur: Whilst Westerners have difficulty thinking of dogs (or wolves) as a source of meat, wolf fur is a highly prized commodity.

Archaeology has placed the earliest known domestication at potentially 10,000 BC-12,000 BC and with certainty at 7,000 BC . Domestication of the wolf over time has produced a number of physical changes typical of all domesticated mammals.

These include: a reduction in overall size; changes in coat colouration and markings; a shorter jaw initially with crowding of the teeth and, later, with the shrinking in size of the teeth; a reduction in brain size and intelligence and thus in cranial capacity (particularly those areas relating to alertness and sensory processing, necessary in the wild); and the development of a pronounced stop, or vertical drop in front of the forehead (brachycephaly).

Behaviourally, the wagging of tails and barking are behaviours only found in wolf puppies, retained via neoteny throughout the dog’s life. Certain wolf-like behaviours, such as the regurgitation of partially digested food for the young, have also disappeared.

As an experiment in the domestication of wolves, the “farm fox” experiment of Russian scientist Dmitry Belyaev [5] attempted to reenact of how domestication may have occurred. Researchers working with selectively breeding wild silver foxes over thirty-five generations and forty years for the sole trait of friendliness to humans, created more dog-like animals.

The “domestic elite” foxes are much more friendly to humans and actually seek human attention, but they also show new physical traits that parallel the selection for tameness, even though the physical traits were not originally selected for. They include spotted or black-and-white coats, floppy ears, tails that curl over their backs, and earlier sexual maturity. It was reported “On average, the domestic foxes respond to sounds two days earlier and open their eyes one day earlier than their non-domesticated cousins.

More striking is that their socialization period has greatly increased. Instead of developing a fear response at 6 weeks of age, the domesticated foxes don’t show it until 9 weeks of age or later. The whimpering and tail wagging is a holdover from puppy hood, as are the foreshortened face and muzzle. Even the new coat colours can be explained by the altered timing of development. One researcher found that the migration of certain melanocytes (which determine colour) was delayed, resulting in a black and white ’star’ pattern.”

DNA Evidence. Prior to the use of DNA researchers were divided into two schools of thought: 1. most supposed that these early dogs were descendants of tamed wolves, which interbred and evolved into a domesticated species. 2. other scientists, whilst believing wolves were the chief contributor, suspected that jackals or coyotes contributed to the dog’s ancestry.

Carles Vila of UCLA,[1], who has conducted the most extensive study to date, has shown that DNA evidence has ruled out any ancestor canine species except the wolf. Vila’s team analyzed 162 different examples of wolf DNA from 27 populations in Europe, Asia, and North America. These results were compared with DNA from 140 individual dogs from 67 breeds gathered from around the world. Using blood or hair samples, DNA was extracted and genetic distance for mitochondrial DNA was estimated between individuals.

Based on this DNA evidence, most of the domesticated dogs were found to be members of one of four groups. The largest and most diverse group contains sequences found in the most ancient dog breeds, including the dingo of Australia, the New Guinea singing dog, and many modern breeds, like the collie and retriever.

Other groups such as the German shepherd showed a closer relation to wolf sequences than to those of the main dog group, suggesting that such breeds had been produced by crossing dogs with wild wolves. It is also possible that this is evidence that dogs may have been domesticated from wolves on different occasions and at different places.

Vila is still uncertain whether domestication happened once - after which domesticated dogs bred with wolves from time to time - or whether it happened more than once.

The most puzzling fact of the DNA evidence is that the variability in molecular distance between dogs and wolves seems greater than the 10-20,000 years assigned to domestication.

Based upon the molecular clock studies conducted, it would seem that dogs separated from the wolf lineage approximately 100,000 years ago. Although clear evidence for fossil dogs becomes obscure beyond about 14,000 years ago, there are fossils of wolf bones in association with early humans from well beyond 100,000 years ago.

Tamed wolves might have taken up with hunter-gatherers without changing in ways that the fossil record could clearly capture. These dogs-in-process would possibly have dallied with wolves as packs of humans and canines traveled out of Africa and around the world.

Since evidence of dogs is not found elsewhere before 14,000 years ago, it may be that the “Sahara pump” associated with the Glacial Maximum was responsible for the spread of the dogs out of Africa. Such a thesis is compatible with the spread of languages associated with the Nostratic hypothesis.

Keith Londrie
http://www.articlesbase.com/pets-articles/origin-of-the-domestic-dog-130582.html

I’ve appreciated travelling all my life. Ever since that time, I’ve had the chance to backpack all the way through Europe, explore around the Caribbean for a month and even reside in Southeast Asia for a short time. The more exotic the destination, the better as far as I’m concerned. That’s why I’ve lately been thinking about revisitng Africa on an African safari.

Going on an African safari would be an encounter like no other. It would be incredible to see all those superb animals such as lions, tigers, elephants, giraffes, zebras, buffalo, and more running liberated in their native environment. But unlike hopping on a plane to the Bahamas with merely an overnight bag with me, going on an African safari requires to a certain extent a bit more planning.

The first thing I decided to do was call up a travel agent. I wasn’t in truth looking for a quotation at that point. I simply wanted to ask a few fundamental questions to acquire a better picture of what I’d need to do before embarking on my African safari. I’m  glad that I decided to make inquiries, as there were quite a few things that I may not have been immediately obvious.

For instance, I didn’t know that I would require a exclusive tourist visa and it takes in the region of 4-6 weeks for the tourist visa to get processed. An added thing I learned is that it would be a good plan to carry a copy of my vaccination records with me. That’s because malaria, dysentery, and other ailments are quite widespread for travellers while on an African safari. I was advised to visit a physician ahead of my journey to get various medicines to help guard against these illnesses.

Once I felt comparatively informed about the arrangements I had to make, I went ahead and started looking at prices. I went online and found quite a few great travel companies specializing in African safaris. Most of these companies have set tour packages that incorporate transport, accommodation, and meals, which would make things a lot easier once I was in that country. Some companies even offered a custom African safari in which travellers could develop their own itineraries.

Improving transport infrastucture in West Africa is a key issue. As those of us who travel in this area know “prevailing rural transport vehicles” (such as VW Campers, elderly Mercedes Buses, miscellaneous trucks) struggle due not only due the age of the vehicles, but also the stress of being driven overloaded and on poor quality roads.

THe following exerpte from a World bank road managment project highlights key issues in measuring requirements and planning improvements - and deals with issues surronding this vicious circle.

“Road infrastructure is a prerequisite (but no guarantee) for economic growth and poverty alleviation. To maximize the positive impact of transport infrastructure in general and poverty alleviation initiatives in particular, the “right” balance between interventions in the national and the rural road network is equally important – i.e. between national connectedness and basic access.

BAA adopts a holistic view in understanding mobility and accessibility needs of rural
communities. It provides a means of identifying, ranking and costing projects for addressing these needs,
for inclusion in the decision-making process. In doing this, BAA enables road authorities to adopt an
inclusive approach in managing road infrastructure, considering both national and rural roads.
BAA Basic Access Approach

The RTI network is defined as “the lowest level of the physical transport chain that connects the rural
population, and therefore the majority of the poor, to their farms, local markets, and social services, such as
schools and health centers, potentially increasing their real income and improving their quality of life” (Lebo
and Schelling, p. 9). Key features of RTI are as follows:

• Ownership: RTI is normally owned by local governments and communities.

• Managing and financing: Many different arrangements may exist for managing and financing RTI.

• Physical features: RTI connects villages to the higher classified road network. These links are normally relatively short (less than 20 kilometers) and sometimes at least partly engineered.

• Traffic characteristics: Transport activities generally are at a much lower level than on main road networks. They are a combination of pedestrians, intermediate means of transport (IMT)such as bicycles and animal-drawn carts, and motorized transport

Minimum criteria for basic access RTI are as follows:

• Passability or reliability

• Adequate access to higher level networks

• Adequate access to local social and economic facilities

• Adequate access to domestic activities

• Trafficable by prevailing rural transport vehicle

A considerable contribution to the study of Islam and Muslim societies in sub-Saharan Africa has been made by the African Studies Centre (ASC) and the Centre d’Études d’Afrique Noire (CEAN) in Bordeaux.

The project has received generous funding from the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, with additional support from the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Drawing on the combined research expertise of the ASC and CEAN, the main objective of the project has been to improve our understanding of Islam and Muslim societies given the momentous changes of the last ten or fifteen years across the African continent. Economic and political liberalization, democratization, the weakening of the state (or in some cases even its collapse), increased global interconnections, and the spread of new media technologies have all had a dramatic impact on Africa. These processes have also influenced the practice of Islam and Muslim societies in Africa in ways that are still not well understood.

Funded by the ASC-CEAN project, more than a dozen academic researchers working in countries across Africa have undertaken research on Islam with particular reference to relations with the state, processes of political and economic reform, globalization and transnationalism. Their individual research projects, in countries such as Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan and Tanzania, have covered topics including Muslim youth, Muslim associations and activists, Islamic NGOs, debates about Islamic law, secularism and minority rights, and Muslims and the political process in both conflict and post-conflict settings. Together, these research projects are making a major and timely contribution to understanding Islam and Muslim societies in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Mali is the jewel in West Africa’s crown. The country occupies the heart of a territory that once supported Africa’s greatest empires and is rich with historical resonance. This history bequeathed to Mali some of its most dramatic attractions – the legendary city of Timbuktu (Tombouctou), the mosque at Djenné and the bustling river port of Mopti are three among many.

Mali’s history has always been a story of its deserts and rivers. The trade routes of the Sahara once made the region among the world’s richest, and the Niger, one of the grand old rivers of Africa, is still the lifeblood of the country; to journey along the Niger River route (preferably on a slow boat to Timbuktu) is one of the continent’s great adventures. Not far from the riverbank, the extraordinary Falaise de Bandiagara rises up from the plains, and shelters one of West Africa’s most intriguing peoples – the Dogon, whose villages and complex cultural rituals still cling to the edge of rocky cliffs.

However at present, Northern Mali is not safe. There have been several kidnappings of westerners by Tuareg rebels and Al-Qaeda in the Land of the Islamic Maghreb (AQLIM) in the past few years, most recently four Europeans on 22 January 2009. Areas of particular concern include the Mali-Niger and Mali-Algeria borders, the Kidal and Gao region, and areas north of Timbuktu

The main cities along the paved road into the north are connected via bus (Bamako, Segou, San, Mopti, Gao). A separate paved loop runs through the south (Bamako, Bougouni, Sikasso, Koutiala, Segou) There are many different companies with different schedules but they all have more or less the same prices. Normally a ride to Mopti (600km, half the way up), takes approximately nine hours; a ride to Gao at least 12. All times are very rough, however, and few bus companies will even give you an estimated arrival time as different drivers drive different speeds and it is not improbable that the bus breaks down and needs a repair or stops to help another bus. It is usually possible to make a reservation several days before, recommended during the tourist season, though one rarely has a problem just showing up 30-60 minutes before the bus leaves.

By taxi brousse

To get around one can take the “Taxi - Brousse”, the bush taxis. They are the main connection between towns which aren’t connected via bus. They are very slow and they sometimes break down or stop to help other broken down taxis. So sometimes the ride takes longer than expected. Unlike the buses, these rarely run on a set schedule, so you generally just need to show up at the station (in a larger town) or sit by the roadside (in smaller villages) and wait for the next to come along - locals may be able to give you some idea what to expect. The vehicles themselves can be mature and varied, such as VWT25 buses, old Mercedes and Renault vans.

By private car

A good option for a larger group or travelers who value comfort over economy is to rent a private car. A 4×4 is strongly recommended if you will be leaving the main highways (this includes the trip to Timbuktu). There are very few asphalt roads, and they are all single-carriageway outside towns, though most are in good condition. One leads into the North of the country (Bamako, Segou, San, Mopti, Gao), another branches off after Segou to cross the Niger at the Markala dam and goes as far as Niono, while another goes from Bamako to Sikasso and on into Ivory Coast. There are private people who rent out their 4×4 cars for a ride (in which case make sure you’ve got insurance and a carnet de passage, and plenty of petrol), but generally renting a car means renting a car and driver. This is strongly recommended as Malian roads and drivers can be unpredictable and the vehicles unreliable.

Travel within Bamako can be difficult for the business traveler and leisure tourist alike. One of the best options is to rent a car with a chauffeur. This can be done on a by-day basis and is an enormous help for someone that is new to the city. When trying to visit numerous places in one day, it becomes difficult to rely on the local taxi system. The chauffeur is a local resident and will know most of the names of the places that you need to go. There is no hassle in finding a parking spot as the chauffeur can wait for you while you attend to the business at hand.

Distances in South Africa and the nature of the terrain have made 4WD transport popular. Train services cover key destinations, but transport in rural areas relies on roads. The long-distance highway system is more efficient now and has left parts of the railway network struggling for traffic.

The first track for steam-powered locomotives was a line of about 2 miles Durban with Harbour Point, opened in 1860. Cape Town had already started building a 45 miles (72 km) line linking Cape Town to Wellington in 1859 but was hampered by delays opened the first section of the line to the Eerste River in February 1862.

Rail in other provinces began later, with a national network created by 1898. This national network was largely completed by 1910. Rail lines extended outside of South Africa, as far north as present-day Zambia, but nver fulfilled the vison of Cecil Rhodes to have a rail system that would run from Cape Town to Cairo.

When the four provinces merged to establish the modern state of South Africa in 1910, the rail lines across the country were also merged.

South Africa is famous for its luxury rail lines, particularly the Blue Train, from Cape Town to Johannesburg. The Blue Line has the reputation as the best luxury train line in the world, and is a popular tourist attraction for South Africa.

However, with a better road system, long distance rail passenger travel has declined. While many commuters still use rail for their daily commute, nationally, only half of the 20,000 kilometres (12,000 mi) of track is fully utilized, and 35% carries no, or very low activity. Now there is a move towards freight to keep the lines running.

This volume is being worked on now, though it will be so large and detailed that it will no doubt take several years to complete it for publication. The principal area it covers will be the current state of Mauritania, where there are several [public] manuscript collections; and many manuscripts of authors of the Western Saharan region will also be found in West African countries such as Mali and Senegal; and also in North Africa - notably in Morocco; and some in France, and perhaps other European countries.

A huge book with this title was published for the Fontes Historiae Africanae in 2003, written by Paulo de Moraes Farias [Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York, for the British Academy). Its sub-title explains more of what it deals with: “Epigraphy, Chronicles, and Songhay–Tuareg History”, and its principle content is images, printed Arabic texts and English translations of 250 tombstones bearing information on rulers and others, buried in, or near, Gao, at Essuk (al-Suq = Tadmakkat), and Kukiya/ Bentiya. There is also a very large and useful Bibliography, and, in the “Historical Introduction” a useful analysis of the early history of Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire.

It is a large-sized volume (8” x 12″), nicely bound with an attractive cover.

Trip to Timbuktu and then Cape Town